Method for high volume manufacture of electrochemical cells using physical vapor deposition

ABSTRACT

Embodiments of the present invention relate to apparatuses and methods for fabricating electrochemical cells. One embodiment of the present invention comprises a single chamber configurable to deposit different materials on a substrate spooled between two reels. In one embodiment, the substrate is moved in the same direction around the reels, with conditions within the chamber periodically changed to result in the continuous build-up of deposited material over time. Another embodiment employs alternating a direction of movement of the substrate around the reels, with conditions in the chamber differing with each change in direction to result in the sequential build-up of deposited material over time. The chamber is equipped with different sources of energy and materials to allow the deposition of the different layers of the electrochemical cell.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 61/074,448, filed Jun. 20, 2008, entitled “Method forHigh Volume Manufacture of Electrochemical Cells Using Physical VaporDeposition,” the contents of which is hereby incorporated by referencein its entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Electrochemical cells are finding ever-increasing use as power suppliesfor a large number of different applications. Examples of devicescommonly run off of battery power include but are not limited to mobileelectronic devices such as cell phones, laptop computers, and portablemedia players. The demand for increased power by these devices hasresulted in the fabrication of electrochemical cells from a variety ofmaterials arranged in different architectures.

Conventional approaches to the fabrication of electrochemical cells haveformed the elements of an electrochemical cell (such as the anode,cathode, and electrolytic material) by depositing a series of layers.Commonly, these electrochemical cells are fabricated utilizing batchprocesses, utilizing separate chambers to deposit different layers.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,411,592 describes an apparatus for the formation ofthin-film batteries utilizing a substrate that is moved between tworolls. By rotating the rolls, the substrate is moved through a pluralityof chambers, in which a film is deposited.

While the approach of the U.S. Pat. No. 5,411,592 may be effective tofabricate an electrochemical cell, it may offer certain disadvantages.One possible disadvantage is bulk, in that each of the films making upthe electrochemical cell must be formed in a separate chamber. Byallocating each fabrication step to a different chamber, the size of theapparatus is increased.

Moreover, by allocating the formation of each layer of theelectrochemical cell to a different chamber, the apparatus of U.S. Pat.No. 5,411,592 may suffer from a lack of flexibility. Specifically, achange in the structure of the electrochemical cell requires a newdevice with different chambers to be created. Where batteries are to beformed from different materials or with different architectures, theconventional batch-type apparatuses may be impractical.

From the above, it is seen that cost effective and efficient techniquesfor manufacturing of semiconductor materials are desirable.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Embodiments of the present invention relate to apparatuses and methodsfor fabricating electrochemical cells. One embodiment of the presentinvention comprises a single chamber configurable to deposit differentmaterials on a substrate spooled between two reels. In one embodiment,the substrate is moved in the same direction around the reels, withconditions within the chamber periodically changed to result in thecontinuous build-up of deposited material over time. Another embodimentemploys alternating a direction of movement of the substrate around thereels, with conditions in the chamber differing with each change indirection to result in the sequential build-up of deposited materialover time. The chamber is equipped with different sources of energy andmaterials to allow the deposition of the different layers of theelectrochemical cell.

According to an embodiment of the present invention, an apparatus fordeposition of electrochemical cells is provided. The apparatus includesa deposition chamber in fluid communication with a first material sourceand with a second material source, a first gate in fluid communicationwith the deposition chamber and configured to be maintained under gasand pressure conditions similar to conditions within the depositionchamber, and a second gate in fluid communication with the depositionchamber and configured to be maintained under gas and pressureconditions similar to conditions within the deposition chamber. Asubstrate is positioned between two reels and extending through thefirst gate, the deposition chamber, and the second gate, and acontroller is configured to rotate the reels in concert to move thesubstrate in a direction through the deposition chamber while materialfrom the material source is deposited on the substrate.

According to another embodiment of the present invention, a process forforming an electrochemical cell is provided. The process includes movinga substrate spooled between two reels in a first direction through adeposition chamber, depositing an anode or a cathode layer on thesubstrate in the chamber under a first set of deposition conditions, andmoving the anode or cathode layer back into the chamber. An electrolytelayer is deposited over the anode or cathode layer within the chamberunder a second set of deposition condition. The electrolyte layer ismoved back into the chamber, and an other of the anode or cathode layeris deposited over the electrolyte layer within the chamber under a thirdset of deposition conditions, to form the electrochemical cell.

According to a specific embodiment of the present invention, anapparatus for forming an electrochemical cell is provided. The apparatusincludes a substrate spooled between two reels through a depositionchamber, a controller in electronic communication with the reels and thedeposition chamber, and a computer-readable storage medium in electroniccommunication with the controller. The computer readable storage mediumhas stored thereon, code directed to instruct the controller to move asubstrate through the deposition chamber in a first direction, instructthe deposition chamber to deposit an anode or a cathode layer on thesubstrate in the chamber under a first set of deposition conditions, andinstruct the reels to move the anode or cathode layer back into thechamber. Code stored on the computer-readable storage medium instructsthe deposition chamber to deposit an electrolyte layer over the anode orcathode layer within the chamber under a second set of depositioncondition, instructs the reels to move the electrolyte layer back intothe chamber; and instructs the deposition chamber to deposit an other ofthe anode or cathode layer over the electrolyte layer within the chamberunder a third set of deposition conditions, to form the electrochemicalcell.

According to another specific embodiment of the present invention, amethod for depositing material on a substrate is provided. The methodincludes passing materials through evaporation sources for heating toprovide a vapor using at least one method selected from the groupconsisting of evaporation, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapordeposition, sputtering, radio frequency magnetron sputtering, microwaveplasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (MPECVD), pulsed laserdeposition (PLD), laser ablation, spray deposition, spray pyrolysis,spray coating or plasma spraying. Oxygen gas or other oxidizing speciesis passed into the evaporation chamber to mix with the material vaporand create an oxide to be deposited. Nitrogen gas or other species ispassed into the evaporation chamber to mix with the material vapor andcreate a nitrate to be deposited, and a substrate is conveyed adjacentthe evaporation sources for deposition of the vapor onto the substrate.

Further understanding of the nature and advantages of the presentinvention may be realized by reference to the latter portions of thespecification and attached drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a simplified schematic diagram illustrating an apparatus fordepositing battery material onto a substrate according to an embodimentof the present invention.

FIG. 2 is a simplified view of a particular embodiment of an apparatusin accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 2A is a simplified flow diagram showing steps of an embodiment of aprocess for forming an electrochemical cell utilizing the apparatus ofFIG. 2.

FIG. 2B is a simplified view of an alternative embodiment of anapparatus in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 2C is a simplified flow diagram showing steps of an embodiment of aprocess for forming an electrochemical cell utilizing the apparatus ofFIG. 2B.

FIG. 3A shows an example of a battery in a wound prismatic form.

FIG. 3B shows an example of a battery in a wound cylindrical form.

FIG. 4 shows the location of an electrochemical cells formed on a coiledsubstrate in accordance with one embodiment.

FIG. 5 shows an example of plurality of discrete electrochemical cellson a substrate and connected by leads.

FIG. 6A is a simplified cross-sectional view showing an electrochemicalcell formed according to an embodiment of the present invention havingelectrodes with a flat thin-film morphological design.

FIG. 6B is a simplified cross-sectional view showing an electrochemicalcell formed according to an embodiment of the present invention havingelectrodes with a sinusoidal shaped morphological design.

FIG. 7 is a simplified cross-sectional view showing an embodiment of astacked electrochemical cell formed according to an embodiment of thepresent invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS

Embodiments in accordance with the present invention relate totechniques for manufacturing electrochemical cells. FIG. 1 is asimplified schematic diagram illustrating an apparatus for depositingbattery material onto a substrate according to an embodiment of thepresent invention.

In particular, the apparatus of FIG. 1 comprises a vacuum depositionchamber 6. The vacuum deposition chamber is configured to deposit thinfilms of materials making up an electrochemical cell. In particular, thevacuum deposition chamber is in fluid communication with a plurality ofmaterial sources allowing deposition of one or more of the followinglayers: an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte, a current collector, and alead connecting one or more discrete electrochemical cells.

Specifically, the vacuum deposition chamber is configured to have atleast one evaporation source to deposit a layer of battery cathodematerial onto a current collector. The current collector may be providedon the substrate ready-made, or may itself be formed utilizing thedeposition chamber.

The deposition chamber is also configured to have at least oneevaporation source to deposit a layer of electrolyte material onto thecathode battery material. The electrolyte material may be deposited as agel or in the solid-state. The deposition chamber is also configured tohave at least one evaporation source to deposit a layer of battery anodematerial onto the electrolyte layer.

The deposition chamber is provided with input and output gas gates 4 and9 respectively. These gas gates maintain an inert or oxidizing vacuumatmosphere in the chamber during deposition.

FIG. 2 shows a more detailed view of an embodiment of an apparatus inaccordance with the present invention. As shown in FIG. 2, oneembodiment of the present invention comprises a processing chamberconfigurable to deposit different materials on a substrate spooledbetween two reels.

The apparatus may include a gas supply such that an oxidizing atmospherecan be maintained as needed at the same time of deposition. A gas supplyvalve connected to the deposition chamber, may allow a reactive gasatmosphere to be maintained as needed at the same time of deposition.Another gas supply valve, connected to the deposition chamber, may allowan inert gas atmosphere to be maintained in the chamber while theprocessed substrate is moved out of the chamber.

The chamber is equipped with different sources of energy and materialsto allow the deposition of the different layers of the electrochemicalcell. For example, the chamber may be equipped with heating or coolingelements to control the thermal environment therein. These temperaturecontrol elements may be global, for example in the form of heat lamps orpeltier heaters or coolers. Alternatively, or in conjunction with globalheat sources/sinks, the apparatus may be equipped with localizedtemperature control elements, such as lasers or jets of cryogenicfluids, that are able to be directed at specific portions of thedeposited materials.

The chamber may also be equipped to expose the materials therein toradiation. Examples of radiation sources in accordance with the presentinvention include but are not limited to UV radiation sources, microwaveradiation sources, and electron beams. Other possible sources ofradiation for use in the chamber include infrared radiation sources,pulsed lasers, nanosecond lasers, low energy lasers (for example havinga power on the order of mJ/cm²) and high energy lasers (for examplehaving a power on the order of J/cm²), and neutron, electrons, photonsor other atomic particles scattering.

The apparatus includes a supply chamber connected in series with thedeposition chamber. A substrate material is fed to the depositionchamber. The substrate material is kept in the same gas atmosphere ofthe deposition chamber and it is unrolled and passed to the depositionchamber continuously or sequentially.

The input/output gates may comprise evacuation chambers connected inseries with the deposition chamber and kept at the same gas atmosphere.The substrate material, upon which the battery has been deposited,passes through the evacuation chamber and is collected in a roll.

This embodiment of the apparatus can be adapted to deposit a stack ofsolid state battery cells onto the substrate. In this embodiment, thesupply and evacuation chambers are reversible. Therefore, when the rollof substrate material has undergone one pass through the depositionchamber, the direction of the substrate can be reversed and thesubstrate passed through the deposition chamber again to allow formationof another layer of the electrochemical cell.

Thus, in the particular embodiment shown in FIG. 2, a direction ofmovement of the substrate around the reels is alternated. Conditionswithin the chamber are varied with each change in direction, in order toresult in the sequential build-up of deposited material over time. Inparticular, a controller is in electrical communication with each of thereels and the chamber. The controller is also in communication with acomputer readable storage medium, having stored thereon code configuredto direct the alternating movement of the substrate in conjunction withdeposition of the different layers of material of the electrochemicalcell.

FIG. 2A is a simplified diagram showing the steps of a process flow 200of forming a battery structure utilizing this approach. Specifically, ina first step 201, the reels are rotated to move a substrate in a firstdirection through the deposition chamber.

In a second step 202, the current collector material is deposited on thesubstrate if the substrate is not electrically conducting. In a thirdstep 203, the material of a first electrode is deposited on thesubstrate. In certain embodiments, the material of the anode isdeposited first. In other embodiments, the material of the cathode maybe deposited first.

In a fourth step 204, the direction of rotation of the reels is changed,and the substrate bearing the deposited electrode material is moved inthe opposite direction back through the chamber. In fifth step 205, thematerial of the electrolyte is deposited over the first electrode.

In a sixth step 206, the direction of rotation of the reels is againreversed to the original direction, and the substrate bearing thedeposited electrolyte material is again moved back through the chamber.In seventh step 207, the material of the second electrode (anode orcathode) is deposited over the electrolyte. In an eighth step 208, thematerial of the current collector is deposited on the second electrode.

The above sequence of steps provides a process according to anembodiment of the present invention. As shown, the method uses acombination of steps including a changes in direction of the movement ofthe substrate through the chamber, coupled with changes in depositionconditions within the chamber. Other alternatives can also be providedwhere steps are added, one or more steps are removed, or one or moresteps are provided in a different sequence without departing from thescope of the claims herein. Further details of the present method can befound throughout the present specification.

In an alternative approach, the substrate may be moved in the samedirection around the reels, with conditions within the chamberperiodically changed to result in the continuous build-up of depositedmaterial over time. FIG. 2B shows a simplified schematic view of anembodiment of an apparatus configured to form a battery structureaccording to such an approach. In particular, a controller is inelectrical communication with the reels and the deposition chamber. Thecontroller is also in communication with a computer readable storagemedium having stored thereon code to direct the controller toconsistently rotate the reels in the same direction to first form anelectrode layer. After a certain amount of time when the substrate iscovered with the electrode layer, code stored on the computer readablestorage medium causes the controller to instruct the chamber to changethe deposition conditions to deposit an electrolyte layer. Subsequently,the controller instructs the deposition chamber to change conditionswithin the chamber yet again to deposit the material of the other of theelectrodes (anode or cathode).

FIG. 2C is a simplified chart summarizing the flow 220 of steps offorming a battery structure utilizing this approach. In a first step222, the reels are rotated to move the substrate through the chamber. Ina second step 223, while the reels are being rotated in the samedirection, a current collector material is deposited on the substrate ifthe substrate is not electrically conducting.

In a third step 224, while the reels are being rotated in the samedirection, an electrode material (anode or cathode) is deposited on thesubstrate, or the current collector material if the substrate isnon-conducting. In a fourth step 226, once the substrate has beencovered with the electrode material, conditions within the chamber arechanged to deposit an electrolyte material on the electrode.

In a fifth step 228, once the first electrode material has been coveredwith the electrolyte, conditions within the chamber are again changedand a second (cathode or anode) material is deposited. In a sixth step229, the current collector material is deposited on the secondelectrode.

The above sequence of steps provides a process according to anembodiment of the present invention. As shown, the method uses acombination of steps including movement of the substrate through thechamber in a consistent direction, coupled with changes in depositionconditions within the chamber. Other alternatives can also be providedwhere steps are added, one or more steps are removed, or one or moresteps are provided in a different sequence without departing from thescope of the claims herein. Further details of the present method can befound throughout the present specification.

The deposition chamber may be configured to deposit materials by atleast one method selected from evaporation, physical vapor deposition(PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), sputtering, radio frequencymagnetron sputtering, microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition (MPECVD), pulsed laser deposition (PLD), laser ablation,spray deposition, spray pyrolysis, spray coating, or plasma spraying.

Conditions for deposition may, but need not, take place in a reducedpressure environment. Thus, the deposition chamber may be he depositionchamber may be configured to deposit materials by at least one

In particular embodiments, the apparatus is configured to depositmaterials utilizing microwave hydrothermal synthesis to createnanoparticles. Nanoparticles deposited according to embodiments of thepresent invention may exhibit at least one of the shapes selected fromthe group consisting of: spheres, nanocubes, pseudocubes, ellipsoids,spindles, nanosheets, nanorings, nanospheres, nanospindles, dots, rods,wires, arrays, tubes, nanotubes, belts, disks, rings, cubes, mesopores,dendrites, propellers, flowers, hollow interiors, hybrids of the listedstructures, and other complex superstructures. Particular embodiment ofapparatuses according to the present invention can be configured todeposit particles using microwave exposure to induce at least one of thefollowing mechanisms: nucleation, aggregation, recrystallization, anddissolution-recrystallization.

In particular embodiments, the apparatus may be configured to depositmaterials utilizing laser ablation, thermal evaporation, vaportransport, or a combination of these techniques, to deposit nanowire,nanotube, or nanobelt structures, or a combination of them. Thematerials that can be deposited in these embodiments include, but arenot limited to, Group III-IV semiconductor nanowires (e.g. silicon),zinc (Zn) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires, nanobelts of semiconductingoxides (oxides of zinc, tin, indium, cadmium, and gallium), carbonnanotubes and carbon meso-structures.

Embodiments of the present invention may offer a number of benefits overconventional approaches. For example, embodiments of the presentinvention facilitate the scalable manufacture of single or multiple,high-performance, thin-film electrochemical cells, particularly ascompared with conventional batch-type manufacturing processes.

Embodiments of the present invention also offer a high degree offlexibility as compared with conventional approaches. In particular,embodiments of the present invention allow multiple manufacturingtechniques to be employed utilizing a single chamber. This approachcreates a system that is capable of utilizing multiple depositiontechniques specific to optimized layers or graded materials, within oneor multiple cells.

Certain embodiments of the present invention allow for the fabricationof a plurality of electrochemical cells in a vertical (stacked)configuration. Thus, particular embodiments of the present invention mayalso include at least one evaporation source adapted to deposit currentcollector layers between the second electrode of a first depositedbattery and the first electrode of the next deposited battery in astack, and also a top conductive metal layer upon the second electrodeof the last deposited battery in a stack.

Alternatively, embodiments of the present invention may allow for thehorizontal formation of batteries/electrochemical cells on a ribbon-typesubstrate. In particular embodiments, such a ribbon may be coiled in awound prismatic form, as is shown in FIG. 3A. In alternativeembodiments, such a ribbon may be coiled in a wound cylindrical form, asis shown in FIG. 3B.

As shown in FIG. 4, in certain embodiments the deposition of materialson the substrate may be limited to particular locations. In particular,deposited materials may be excluded from portions of the substrateexpected to be the location of a sharp turn in the coil, therebyavoiding high stresses and possible defects associated with winding.

In particular embodiments, a plurality of electrochemical cells may beformed in a horizontal series on a ribbon-type substrate, withelectrical communication between the discrete electrochemical cellsestablished through conducting lead structures. Such a embodiment isshown in FIG. 5.

Where such leads are relatively thin and fragile, the tight turns of acoil could impose physical stress on them, possibly resulting infracture. Accordingly, particular embodiments of the present inventionmay space the discrete batteries/cells with increasing spacing. Suchspacing would accommodate a larger amount of material in successiveturns as the material is wound, reducing physical stress.

Examples Example 1 Manufacture of a Thin-Film Li Battery

This example demonstrates the process of manufacturing a newelectrochemical cell. In particular, two different morphological designsof electrodes are shown. FIG. 6A is a simplified cross-sectional viewshowing an electrochemical cell formed according to an embodiment of thepresent invention having electrodes with a flat thin-film morphologicaldesign. FIG. 6B is a simplified cross-sectional view showing anelectrochemical cell formed according to an embodiment of the presentinvention having electrodes with a sinusoidal shaped morphologicaldesign.

The materials for the three-dimensional electrochemical cells are copperas anode current collector (16 in FIG. 6A, 21 in FIG. 6B), lithium metalas anode (17 in FIG. 6A, 22 in FIG. 6B), polymer with lithium salts asthe electrolyte (18 in FIG. 6A, 23 in FIG. 6B), lithium manganese oxideas cathode (19 in FIG. 6A, 24 in FIG. 6B), and aluminum as cathodecurrent collector (20 in FIG. 6A, 25 in FIG. 6B). Because a polymerelectrolyte is used, a separator is unnecessary.

These materials used here are for illustrative purposes only. Inaccordance with alternative embodiments, other materials could be usedto form the electrochemical cell and still remain within the scope ofthe present invention.

In the flat electrode configuration of FIG. 6A, the substrate is thefirst current collector (copper). Successive layers of materials, activeand inactive, are deposited via PVD on the substrate in the depositionchamber.

In the sinusoidal configuration, a ridged polymeric film is used as thesubstrate. A first metallic layer (copper) is deposited on thesubstrate, followed by successive layers of materials, active andinactive, which are deposited via PVD in the chamber.

Example 2 Manufacture of a Stacked Set of Cells, Producing a HigherVoltage, and Energy, Battery

This example demonstrates the process of manufacturing a stacked cell.FIG. 6 shows two flat thin-film cells stacked together. The materialsfor the three-dimensional electrochemical cells are copper as anodecurrent collector (26 and 31), lithium metal as anode (27 and 32),polymer with lithium salts as the electrolyte (28 and 33), lithiummanganese oxide as cathode (29 and 34), and aluminum as cathode currentcollector (30 and 35). Because a polymer electrolyte is used, aseparator is not required.

The particular materials listed here are for illustrative purposes only.Other materials could be employed by alternative embodiments and stillremain within the scope of the present invention.

In this particular example, multiple layers are deposited in sequenceusing the first flat metallic layer (copper current collector) as thesubstrate. PVD is used to deposit the successive active and inactivematerials.

While the above-embodiments describe electrochemical cells fabricatedfrom particular materials, the present invention is not limited to theuse of such materials. Alternative embodiments could deposit a widevariety of deposited materials for the anode, electrolyte, and cathode,and remain within the scope of the present invention. For example, TABLE1 is a non-exhaustive list of examples of the materials making upvarious types of electrolytic cells.

TABLE 1 CURRENT SUBSTRATE ANODE ELECTROLYTE CATHODE COLLECTOR LEADcopper (Cu) foil graphite (C) lithium phosphorus layered metal oxidealuminum (Al) copper oxynitride (LIPON) materials (Cu) (e.g. LiCoO₂)copper (Cu) foil graphite (C) lithium phosphorus spinel materialsaluminum (Al) copper oxynitride (LIPON) (e.g. LiMn₂O₄) (Cu) copper (Cu)foil graphite (C) lithium phosphorus olivine materials aluminum (Al)copper oxynitride (LIPON) (e.g. LiFePO₄) (Cu) copper (Cu) foil graphite(C) lithium phosphorus Li(Ni_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)Co_(1/3))O₂ aluminum (Al)copper oxynitride (LIPON) (Cu) copper (Cu) foil graphite (C) lithiumphosphorus LiNi_(x)Co_(y)Al_((1−x−y))O₂ aluminum (Al) copper oxynitride(LIPON) (NCA) (Cu) copper (Cu) foil graphite (C) lithium phosphorusLiNi_(x)Mn_(y)Co_((1−x−y))O₂ aluminum (Al) copper oxynitride (LIPON)(NCM) (Cu) copper (Cu) foil meso- lithium phosphorus layered metal oxidealuminum (Al) copper carbon (C) oxynitride (LIPON) materials (Cu) (e.g.LiCoO₂) copper (Cu) foil meso- lithium phosphorus spinel materialsaluminum (Al) copper carbon (C) oxynitride (LIPON) (e.g. LiMn₂O₄) (Cu)copper (Cu) foil meso- lithium phosphorus olivine materials aluminum(Al) copper carbon (C) oxynitride (LIPON) (e.g. LiFePO₄) (Cu) copper(Cu) foil meso- lithium phosphorus Li(Ni_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)Co_(1/3))O₂aluminum (Al) copper carbon (C) oxynitride (LIPON) (Cu) copper (Cu) foilmeso- lithium phosphorus LiNi_(x)Co_(y)Al_((1−x−y))O₂ (NCA) aluminum(Al) copper carbon (C) oxynitride (LIPON) (Cu) copper (Cu) foil meso-lithium phosphorus LiNi_(x)Mn_(y)Co_((1−x−y))O₂ aluminum (Al) coppercarbon (C) oxynitride (LIPON) (NCM) (Cu) copper (Cu) foil lithiumlithium phosphorus layered metal oxide aluminum (Al) copper titaniumoxynitride (LIPON) materials (Cu) oxide (e.g. LiCoO₂) (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂) copper(Cu) foil lithium lithium phosphorus spinel materials aluminum (Al)copper titanium oxynitride (LIPON) (e.g. LiMn₂O₄) (Cu) oxide (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂)copper (Cu) foil lithium lithium phosphorus olivine materials aluminum(Al) copper titanium oxynitride (LIPON) (e.g. LiFePO₄) (Cu) oxide(Li₄Ti₅O₁₂) copper (Cu) foil lithium lithium phosphorusLi(Ni_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)Co_(1/3))O₂ aluminum (Al) copper titanium oxynitride(LIPON) (Cu) oxide (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂) copper (Cu) foil lithium lithiumphosphorus LiNi_(x)Co_(y)Al_((1−x−y))O₂ (NCA) aluminum (Al) coppertitanium oxynitride (LIPON) (Cu) oxide (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂) copper (Cu) foillithium lithium phosphorus LiNi_(x)Mn_(y)Co_((1−x−y))O₂ aluminum (Al)copper titanium oxynitride (LIPON) (NCM) (Cu) oxide (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂) copper(Cu) foil lithium lithium phosphorus layered metal oxide aluminum (Al)copper metal (Li) oxynitride (LIPON) materials (Cu) (e.g. LiCoO₂) copper(Cu) foil lithium lithium phosphorus spinel materials aluminum (Al)copper metal (Li) oxynitride (LIPON) (e.g. LiMn₂O₄) (Cu) copper (Cu)foil lithium lithium phosphorus olivine materials aluminum (Al) coppermetal (Li) oxynitride (LIPON) (e.g. LiFePO₄) (Cu) copper (Cu) foillithium lithium phosphorus Li(Ni_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)Co_(1/3))O₂ aluminum (Al)copper metal (Li) oxynitride (LIPON) (Cu) copper (Cu) foil lithiumlithium phosphorus LiNi_(x)Co_(y)Al_((1−x−y))O₂ (NCA) aluminum (Al)copper metal (Li) oxynitride (LIPON) (Cu) copper (Cu) foil lithiumlithium phosphorus LiNi_(x)Mn_(y)Co_((1−x−y))O₂ aluminum (Al) coppermetal (Li) oxynitride (LIPON) (NCM) (Cu) copper (Cu) foil graphite (C)lithium salts/poly- layered metal oxide aluminum (Al) copper ethyleneoxide (PEO), materials (Cu) lithium salts/poly- (e.g. LiCoO₂) vinylidenefluoride (PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil graphite (C)lithium salts/poly- spinel materials aluminum (Al) copper ethylene oxide(PEO), (e.g. LiMn₂O₄) (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride(PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil graphite (C) lithiumsalts/poly- olivine materials aluminum (Al) copper ethylene oxide (PEO),(e.g. LiFePO₄) (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride (PVDF),lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil graphite (C) lithium salts/poly-Li(Ni_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)Co_(1/3))O₂ aluminum (Al) copper ethylene oxide(PEO), (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride (PVDF), lithiumsalts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil graphite (C) lithium salts/poly-LiNi_(x)Co_(y)Al_((1−x−y))O₂ (NCA) aluminum (Al) copper ethylene oxide(PEO), (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride (PVDF), lithiumsalts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil graphite (C) lithium salts/poly-LiNi_(x)Mn_(y)Co_((1−x−y))O₂ aluminum (Al) copper ethylene oxide (PEO),(NCM) (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride (PVDF), lithiumsalts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil meso- lithium salts/poly- layered metaloxide aluminum (Al) copper carbon (C) ethylene oxide (PEO), materials(Cu) lithium salts/poly- (e.g. LiCoO₂) vinylidene fluoride (PVDF),lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil meso- lithium salts/poly- spinelmaterials aluminum (Al) copper carbon (C) ethylene oxide (PEO), (e.g.LiMn₂O₄) (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride (PVDF), lithiumsalts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil meso- lithium salts/poly- olivinematerials aluminum (Al) copper carbon (C) ethylene oxide (PEO), (e.g.LiFePO₄) (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride (PVDF), lithiumsalts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil meso- lithium salts/poly-Li(Ni_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)Co_(1/3))O₂ aluminum (Al) copper carbon (C) ethyleneoxide (PEO), (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride (PVDF),lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil meso- lithium salts/poly-LiNi_(x)Co_(y)Al_((1−x−y))O₂ (NCA) aluminum (Al) copper carbon (C)ethylene oxide (PEO), (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride(PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil meso- lithiumsalts/poly- LiNi_(x)Mn_(y)Co_((1−x−y))O₂ aluminum (Al) copper carbon (C)ethylene oxide (PEO), (NCM) (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride(PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil lithium lithiumsalts/poly- layered metal oxide aluminum (Al) copper titanium ethyleneoxide (PEO), materials (e.g. (Cu) oxide lithium salts/poly- LiCoO₂)(Li₄Ti₅O₁₂) vinylidene fluoride (PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper(Cu) foil lithium lithium salts/poly- spinel materials (e.g. aluminum(Al) copper titanium ethylene oxide (PEO), LiMn₂O₄) (Cu) oxide lithiumsalts/poly- (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂) vinylidene fluoride (PVDF), lithiumsalts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil lithium lithium salts/poly- olivinematerials (e.g. aluminum (Al) copper titanium ethylene oxide (PEO),LiFePO₄) (Cu) oxide lithium salts/poly- (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂) vinylidene fluoride(PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil lithium lithiumsalts/poly- Li(Ni_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)Co_(1/3))O₂ aluminum (Al) copper titaniumethylene oxide (PEO), (Cu) oxide lithium salts/poly- (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂)vinylidene fluoride (PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foillithium lithium salts/poly- LiNi_(x)Co_(y)Al_((1−x−y))O₂ (NCA) aluminum(Al) copper titanium ethylene oxide (PEO), (Cu) oxide lithiumsalts/poly- (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂) vinylidene fluoride (PVDF), lithiumsalts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil lithium lithium salts/poly-LiNi_(x)Mn_(y)Co_((1−x−y))O₂ aluminum (Al) copper titanium ethyleneoxide (PEO), (NCM) (Cu) oxide lithium salts/poly- (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂) vinylidenefluoride (PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil lithium lithiumsalts/poly- layered metal oxide aluminum (Al) copper metal (Li) ethyleneoxide (PEO), materials (Cu) lithium salts/poly- (e.g. LiCoO₂) vinylidenefluoride (PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil lithium lithiumsalts/poly- spinel materials aluminum (Al) copper metal (Li) ethyleneoxide (PEO), (e.g. LiMn₂O₄) (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride(PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil lithium lithiumsalts/poly- olivine materials aluminum (Al) copper metal (Li) ethyleneoxide (PEO), (e.g. LiFePO₄) (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride(PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil lithium lithiumsalts/poly- Li(Ni_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)Co_(1/3))O₂ aluminum (Al) copper metal(Li) ethylene oxide (PEO), (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride(PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil lithium lithiumsalts/poly- LiNi_(x)Co_(y)Al_((1−x−y))O₂ (NCA) aluminum (Al) coppermetal (Li) ethylene oxide (PEO), (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidenefluoride (PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF copper (Cu) foil lithium lithiumsalts/poly- LiNi_(x)Mn_(y)Co_((1−x−y))O₂ aluminum (Al) copper metal (Li)ethylene oxide (PEO), (NCM) (Cu) lithium salts/poly- vinylidene fluoride(PVDF), lithium salts/PEO/PVDF

It is further understood that the examples and embodiments describedherein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modificationsor changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in theart and are to be included within the spirit and purview of thisapplication and scope of the appended claims.

1. An apparatus for deposition of electrochemical cells, the apparatuscomprising: a deposition chamber in fluid communication with a firstmaterial source and with a second material source; a first gate in fluidcommunication with the deposition chamber and configured to bemaintained under gas and pressure conditions similar to conditionswithin the deposition chamber; a second gate in fluid communication withthe deposition chamber and configured to be maintained under gas andpressure conditions similar to conditions within the deposition chamber;a substrate positioned between two reels and extending through the firstgate, the deposition chamber, and the second gate; and a controllerconfigured to rotate the reels in concert to move the substrate in adirection through the deposition chamber while material from thematerial source is deposited on the substrate.
 2. The apparatus of claim1 further comprising a vacuum source in fluid communication with thedeposition chamber.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1 further comprising aradiation source in energetic communication with the deposition chamber.4. The apparatus of claim 1 further comprising a thermal source inenergetic communication with the deposition chamber.
 5. The apparatus ofclaim 1 further comprising an optical source in energetic communicationwith the deposition chamber.
 6. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein thecontroller is configured to rotate the reels in alternating directionsand to instruct the deposition chamber to deposit on the substrate anelectrode from the first material source when the substrate is moved ina first direction, and then to deposit on the electrode an electrolytefrom the second material source when the substrate is moved in a seconddirection opposite to the first direction.
 7. The apparatus of claim 6wherein the controller is configured to deposit a plurality of discreteelectrode portions on the substrate, the plurality of discrete electrodeportions separated by an increasing distance accommodating a location ofan expected sharp turn of the substrate when assembled in a woundconfiguration.
 8. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the controller isconfigured to rotate the reels in a constant direction, and to instructthe deposition chamber to deposit on the substrate an electrode from thefirst material source during a first time period, and then to deposit onthe electrode an electrolyte from the second material source during asecond time period subsequent to the first time period.
 9. The apparatusof claim 8 wherein the controller is configured to deposit a pluralityof discrete electrode portions on the substrate, the plurality ofdiscrete electrode portions separated by an increasing distanceaccommodating an expected location of a sharp turn of the substrate whenassembled in a wound configuration.
 10. The apparatus of claim 1 whereinthe first material source allows deposition of an anode or a cathode,and the second material source allows deposition of an electrolyte. 11.The apparatus of claim 10 further comprising a third material sourcewhich allows deposition of the other of the anode or the cathode. 12.The apparatus of claim 11 further comprising a fourth material sourcewhich allows deposition of a current collector.
 13. The apparatus ofclaim 1 wherein the chamber is configured to perform depositionutilizing one or a combination of the methods selected from the groupconsisting of evaporation, physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemicalvapor deposition, sputtering, radio frequency magnetron sputtering,microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (MPECVD), pulsedlaser deposition (PLD), laser ablation, spray deposition, spraypyrolysis, spray coating or plasma spraying.
 14. The apparatus of claim1 wherein the chamber is configured to deposit nanowire structures,nanotube structures, or nanobelt structures, or a combination of thosestructures.
 15. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the chamber isconfigured to deposit Group III-IV semiconductor nanowires, zinc (Zn) orzinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires, nanobelts of semiconducting oxides of zinc,tin, indium, cadmium, and gallium), carbon nanotubes, or carbonmeso-structures.
 16. A process for forming an electrochemical cell, theprocess comprising: moving a substrate spooled between two reels in afirst direction through a deposition chamber; depositing an anode or acathode layer on the substrate in the chamber under a first set ofdeposition conditions; moving the anode or cathode layer back into thechamber; depositing an electrolyte layer over the anode or cathode layerwithin the chamber under a second set of deposition condition; movingthe electrolyte layer back into the chamber; and depositing an other ofthe anode or cathode layer over the electrolyte layer within the chamberunder a third set of deposition conditions, to form the electrochemicalcell.
 17. The process of claim 16 wherein depositing the anode orcathode layer, the electrolyte layer, or the other of the anode orcathode layer, is performed utilizing one or a combination of themethods selected from the group consisting of evaporation, physicalvapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, radiofrequency magnetron sputtering, microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition (MPECVD), pulsed laser deposition (PLD), laser ablation,spray deposition, spray pyrolysis, spray coating or plasma spraying. 18.The process of claim 16 wherein the cathode or anode layer is moved intothe chamber in a second direction opposite to the first direction, andthe electrolyte layer is moved into the chamber in the first direction.19. The process of claim 16 wherein the cathode or anode layer and theelectrolyte layer are moved into the chamber in the first direction byrotation of the substrate around the reels.
 20. The process of claim 16wherein the electrolyte layer is deposited over the anode layer, and thecathode layer is deposited over the electrolyte layer.
 21. The processof claim 16 wherein the electrolyte layer is deposited over the cathodelayer, and the anode layer is deposited over the electrolyte layer. 22.The process of claim 16 wherein the cathode or anode layer is depositedover a current collection layer on the substrate.
 23. The process ofclaim 22 further comprising depositing a current collection layer on thesubstrate prior to depositing the cathode or the anode layer.
 24. Theprocess of claim 16 wherein deposition of the layers is repeated on afresh portion of the substrate to form a plurality of discreteelectrochemical cells.
 25. The process of claim 16 wherein deposition ofthe layers is repeated on an existing electrochemical cell to form aplurality of stacked electrochemical cells.
 26. The process of claim 16wherein depositing the anode or cathode layer comprises depositingnanowire structures, nanotube structures, or nanobelt structures, or acombination of those structures.
 27. The process of claim 16 whereindepositing the anode layer, the cathode layer, or the electrolyte layercomprises depositing Group III-IV semiconductor nanowires, zinc (Zn) orzinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires, nanobelts of semiconducting oxides of zinc,tin, indium, cadmium, and gallium), carbon nanotubes, or carbonmeso-structures.
 28. An apparatus for forming an electrochemical cell,the apparatus comprising: a substrate spooled between two reels througha deposition chamber; a controller in electronic communication with thereels and the deposition chamber; and a computer-readable storage mediumin electronic communication with the controller, the computer readablestorage medium having stored thereon code directing the controller to,move a substrate through the deposition chamber in a first direction;instruct the deposition chamber to deposit an anode or a cathode layeron the substrate in the chamber under a first set of depositionconditions; instruct the reels to move the anode or cathode layer backinto the chamber; instruct the deposition chamber to deposit anelectrolyte layer over the anode or cathode layer within the chamberunder a second set of deposition condition; instruct the reels to movethe electrolyte layer back into the chamber; and instruct the depositionchamber to deposit an other of the anode or cathode layer over theelectrolyte layer within the chamber under a third set of depositionconditions, to form the electrochemical cell.
 29. The apparatus of claim28 wherein the code stored on the computer-readable storage medium:directs the controller to instruct the reels to move the cathode oranode layer into the chamber in a second direction opposite to the firstdirection, and directs the controller to instruct the reels to move theelectrolyte layer into the chamber in the first direction.
 30. Theapparatus of claim 28 wherein the code stored on the computer-readablestorage medium directs the controller to instruct the reels to move thecathode or anode layer and the electrolyte layer into the chamber in thefirst direction by rotation of the substrate around the reels.
 31. Theapparatus of claim 28 wherein the code is configured to direct thecontroller to instruct the deposition chamber to repeat deposition ofthe layers on a fresh portion of the substrate to form a plurality ofdiscrete electrochemical cells.
 32. The apparatus of claim 28 whereinthe code is configured to direct the controller to instruct thesubstrate heating elements to heat the substrate at temperaturessuitable (e.g. ≦800° C.) to induce phase transformation,re-crystallization or diffusion and growth.
 33. The apparatus of claim28 wherein the code is configured to direct the controller to instructthe deposition chamber to repeat deposition of the layers on an existingelectrochemical cell to form plurality of stacked electrochemical cells.34. A deposition apparatus for high volume deposition of solid state,thin-film electrochemical cells, said apparatus comprising: a firsthousing that defines an enclosed supply chamber; a roll conveyor,located within the supply chamber, for conveying the substrate to thedeposition chamber and thence to the evacuation chamber; a first gateconnecting a first supply chamber and the deposition chamber maintainingthe same gas atmosphere and the same vacuum pressure as the depositionchamber to allow continuous processing; a single vacuum depositionchamber to deposit multiple battery materials, in the form ofthin-films; a second gate connecting the deposition chamber to anevacuation chamber, maintaining the same gas atmosphere and the samevacuum pressure as the deposition chamber to allow continuousprocessing; and a second housing that defines an enclosed evacuationchamber, connected in series with the deposition chamber.
 35. Thedeposition apparatus of claim 34 further comprising: a vacuum source todraw a vacuum atmosphere within the deposition chamber; an evaporationsource to deposit battery cathode material onto the substrate material;a first evaporation source to deposit electrolyte material onto thebattery cathode material; a second evaporation source to deposit batteryanode material onto the electrolyte material layer; a gas supply valve,connected to the deposition chamber; and a valve to evacuate and ventthe chamber after deposition is completed or between sequentialdeposition steps.
 36. The deposition apparatus of claim 34 wherein thedeposition chamber is configured to deposit materials using microwavehydrothermal synthesis to create nanoparticles of at least one of theshapes selected from the group consisting of spheres, nanocubes,pseudocubes, ellipsoids, spindles, nanosheets, nanorings, nanospheres,nanospindles, dots, rods, wires, arrays, tubes, nanotubes, belts, disks,rings, cubes, mesopores, dendrites, propellers, flowers, hollowinteriors, hybrids of the listed structures and other complexsuperstructures.
 37. The deposition apparatus of claim 34 wherein thedeposition chamber is configured to deposit layers to create distinct orindistinct interfaces.
 38. The deposition apparatus of claim 37 whereinthe electrolyte and a separator could be made of a same material,comprising the same phase.
 39. The deposition apparatus of claim 34wherein the supply and evacuation chambers are reversible to allow thedeposition chamber to deposit a stack of solid state batteries onto thesubstrate, such that when the roll of substrate material has undergoneone pass through the deposition chamber, the direction of said substratecan be reversed and said substrate can undergo another pass through thedeposition chamber.
 40. The deposition apparatus of claim 34 wherein thechamber is configured to deposit particles synthesized using microwaveexposure to induce at least one of the mechanisms selected from thegroup consisting of nucleation, aggregation, recrystallization anddissolution-recrystallization.
 41. The deposition apparatus of claim 34further including at least one evaporation source to deposit a topconductive metal layer serving as current collector on top of the secondbattery electrode layer.
 42. The deposition apparatus of claim 34further including at least two evaporation sources configured to deposittwo conductive metal layers serving as current collectors, between acathode of a first deposited cell and an anode of a next deposited cell.43. The deposition apparatus of claim 34 wherein the deposition chamberis configured to deposit materials utilizing a process selected from thegroup consisting of evaporation, physical vapor deposition, chemicalvapor deposition, sputtering, radio frequency magnetron sputtering,microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (MPECVD), pulsedlaser deposition (PLD), laser ablation, spray deposition, spraypyrolysis, spray coating or plasma spraying.
 44. A method for depositingmaterial on a substrate comprising: passing materials throughevaporation sources for heating to provide a vapor using at least onemethod selected from the group consisting of evaporation, physical vapordeposition, chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, radio frequencymagnetron sputtering, microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition (MPECVD), pulsed laser deposition (PLD), laser ablation,spray deposition, spray pyrolysis, spray coating or plasma spraying;passing oxygen gas or other oxidizing species into the evaporationchamber to mix with the material vapor and create an oxide to bedeposited; passing nitrogen gas or other species into the evaporationchamber to mix with the material vapor and create a nitrate to bedeposited; and conveying a substrate adjacent the evaporation sourcesfor deposition of the vapor onto the substrate.
 45. A compositioncomprising: a substrate material configured to be wound between reels,the substrate material comprising copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), stainlesssteel, or other suitable conductive alloy in the form of a thin foil andbearing, a first electrode material comprising at least one of lithiummetal (Li), lithium titanium oxide (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂), graphite (C), ormeso-carbon structures; an electrolyte material overlying the firstelectrode material and comprising at least one of lithium phosphorusoxynitride (LIPON) or a lithium salt mixed with poly-ethylene oxide(PEO), poly-vinylidene fluoride (PVDF), or a combination of PEO andPVDF; and a second electrode material overlying the electrolyte materialand comprising at least one of a layered metal oxide material, a layeredspinel material, or a layered olivine material.
 46. The composition ofclaim 45 wherein the meso-carbon structures comprise at least one ofmicrobeads or other microstructures.
 47. The composition of claim 45wherein the lithium salt comprises at least one of LiClO4 or LiPF₆. 48.The composition of claim 45 wherein the layered oxide material comprisesLiCoO₂, the layered spinel material comprises LiMn₂O₄, or the layeredolivine material comprises LiFePO₄, Li(N_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)Co_(1/3))O₂,LiNi_(x)Co_(y)Al_((1-x-y))O₂ (NCA), or LiNi_(x)Mn_(y)Co_((1-x-y))O₂(NCM).
 49. The composition of claim 45 wherein the first electrodematerial, the electrolyte material, and the second electrode materialare formed as plurality of discrete cells on the substrate.
 50. Thecomposition of claim 45 further comprising an electrically conductinglead connecting the plurality of discrete cells.
 51. The composition ofclaim 45 wherein the first electrode material, the electrolyte material,and the second electrode material are formed as part of a vertical stackof a plurality of cells.